"This effectually unmans me"

As John Sevier governed his state of Tennessee, he struggled to maintain peaceful relations with the Native American tribes living within the newly created borders of the state. Tennessee's territorial boundaries stretched from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River, and around two-thirds of that territory remained under the control of the Native American population. Managing diplomatic relations and negotiating territorial disputes between white settlers and the tribes of the region consumed much of Sevier's time and attention during his first series of administrations as governor. Congress also demanded that Sevier's citizens honor the federal government's own treaties with Native Americans, which proved challenging as land speculators and settlers extended their reach westward. Native Americans sought to defend their land and their way of life from the overmountain onslaught with frequent raids and violent assaults on established settlements. Tales of "savage" depredations against the white settlers reached every corner of the state and did nothing to help further the cause of peace.

"A map of the Tennessee government, formerly part of North Carolina taken chiefly from surveys by Genel. D. Smith and others. J.T. Scott, sculptor. American Edition of Guthrie's Geographical."
Image credit: Tennessee Virtual Archive (TeVA), Tennessee State Library and Archives

In July of 1796, Sevier revealed his discontent with the violence that characterized life on America's first frontier when he declared:

"I shall always be desirous of preserving and supporting peace between the frontiers and our Indian neighbors, by restraining, as much as possible, the former from intrusion and encroachments of every kind; at the same time hope the latter will be suffered to pass off with impunity, for any violences and depredations they may unprovokedly and wantonly commit. It is a well known fact and shamefully obvious, that all the erratic tribes are accustomed and habituated to licentiousness; and educated to a vagrant, lawless, debauched and immoral life, and nothing but a sufficient conviction of being chastised will ever deter those itinerant nations from their common desperate and rapacious practices."

By the following year, Sevier's frustration with the federal government's insistence on restraint increased. In a November 26, 1797 letter to Tennessee's Congressional delegation, Sevier lamented, "Will the American Congress cramp and refuse to the Western Americans the great natural advantages Providence has designated for, and placed before them?" With this public proclamation, Sevier revealed a personal belief held by many of his fellow pioneers, that God's mighty hand had delivered the Trans-Appalachian West to its settlers and granted them dominion over all the Indian tribes who may reside within it.

By the close of the eighteenth century, government officials looked to men of faith to quell the violence. Leading up to this moment, an effort to "civilize" the Native populations began in 1791 following the signing of the Treaty of Holston which called for the Cherokee nation to "be led to a greater degree of civilization" in order "to become herdsmen and cultivators, instead of remaining in a state of hunters." In succeeding years, the federal government embraced attempts to educate and civilize the Native American population. In 1797, President John Adams appointed an agent to the Cherokees with orders to instruct them in various methods of farming and domesticating animals. By the time Thomas Jefferson held the presidential office, his administration publicly endorsed religious missionaries in their efforts to educate and instruct the Cherokees.

Within the state of Tennessee, Governor Sevier followed President Jefferson's determined lead. In 1803, with the cooperation of several Indian chiefs, Sevier authorized a Presbyterian minister named Gideon Blackburn to set up a school at Tellico Blockhouse, an early American outpost now part of the Fort Loudoun State Historical Area located along the Little Tennessee River in present-day Monroe County, Tennessee.

In his book, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans, Anthony F.C. Wallace described Blackburn's ambition "to convert the Cherokees to civilization and Christianity by educating their children. In 1804 he constructed a boarding school and in 1805 proudly presented his first class at a kind of graduation ceremony, where little Cherokees, dressed in white clothing, demonstrated their ability to read from books and sing hymns in English."

In 1804, the Reverend Gideon Blackburn opened a Presbyterian school for the Cherokee near the village of Sale Creek. In March 1817, he established a school that became known as the Brainerd Mission. More missions like this were founded throughout the region. The Brainerd Mission was a multi-acre mission school situated on Chickamauga Creek near present-day Chattanooga. It was the largest institution of its type among the Eastern Cherokees.
Image credit: Penelope Johnson Allen Papers, Special Collections, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga

In his own account of the ceremony, Blackburn recalled Governor Sevier's emotional reaction to what he had just witnessed. In a December 14, 1807 letter written to a fellow clergyman named Rev. Dr. Morse, Blackburn remarked:

"...Few of the spectators were unmoved, and many shed tears plentifully. The Governor, a hardy veteran, who had often braved the dangers of war in the same forest, said to me, 'I have often stood unmoved amidst showers of bullets from the Indian rifles; but this effectually unmans me. I see civilization taking the ground of barbarism, and the praises of Jesus succeeding to the war whoop of the savage.' All this time the tears were stealing down his manly cheek."

Gideon Blackburn
Image credit: PCA Historical Center

Similar civilization programs like Blackburn's continued throughout the American frontier. Over time, however, the federal government's experiments in cultural assimilation and religious education ultimately gave way to a national policy of forced relocation after Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. In the course of a single generation, Governor Sevier's tears of joy flowed into an ignominious "Trail of Tears" that came to symbolize our national government's callous treatment of Native Americans for generations to follow.



SELECTED SOURCES:

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The Panoplist, Or, The Christian's Armory, Volume 3. "Religious Intelligence" Letter IV. Maryville, Dec. 14, 1807.

Bernard W. Sheehan. Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian philanthropy and the American Indian. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973.

Grace Steele Woodward. The Cherokees. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.

Anthony F.C. Wallace. Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans. Cambridge, Mass. and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999.

John Sevier to Andrew Jackson, et al; Nov. 26, 1797, Williams, ed., "Journal of Sevier," East Tennessee Historical Society Publications, No. 3 (1931), 161.

Samuel C. Williams, ed., "Executive Journal of Gov. John Sevier," East Tennessee Historical Society Publications, No. 1 (1929), 113.



 

Gordon Belt is an information professional, archives advocate, public historian, and author of The History Press book, John Sevier: Tennessee's First Hero, which examines the life of Tennessee's first governor, John Sevier, through the lens of history and memory. On The Posterity Project, Gordon offers reflections on archives, public history, and memory from his home state of Tennessee.

"That hallowed spot!" Commemoration and Memorialization at Chattanooga's Confederate Cemetery

Last week, my wife, Traci, had the honor to be a part of a panel discussion on the topic of "Commemoration and Memorialization" at the Tennessee Civil War Sesquicentennial Signature Event in Chattanooga. Organizers of this four-day symposium presented an outstanding program, with my professional colleagues from the Tennessee State Library and Archives playing a critical role in the festivities. Traci and I are grateful to have had the opportunity to attend this historic event.

Traci's presentation on the last day of the symposium focused on the Confederate Cemetery in Chattanooga, and how religion influenced commemoration ceremonies held there over the years. The topic tied in quite nicely with themes documented in her book, Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War. Traci provided an overview of the history of the cemetery, and shared insights about how the soldiers buried there were remembered throughout the years.

The history surrounding the Confederate Cemetery dates back to 1862 when numerous Confederate casualties began arriving in Chattanooga hospitals. Most of the graves are of soldiers who died in hospitals in Chattanooga from wounds received in the Battle of Stones River (Second Battle of Murfreesboro) and from sickness and wounds incurred in the campaigns from January to September 1863, when Chattanooga was evacuated by the Confederate troops. Those men who died in Chattanooga Confederate Hospitals were originally buried in a plot of ground located near the Tennessee River, but frequent flooding washed over many of those graves and wooden headboards were lost for about 141 of them.

This monument to "Our Confederate Dead"
at the Confederate Cemetery was erected in 1877.
Author photo.

After the war, veterans of the Civil War and the Confederate women of Chattanooga sought to move the graves to higher ground. As early as 1867, veterans groups acquired land for the upper half of the cemetery’s current location near the campus of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga -- my undergrad alma mater. Sources have estimated that as many as 2,500 soldiers were eventually buried in the cemetery.

The Confederate Cemetery was the site of several memorial services, and Chattanooga served as the site of the First National Reunion of the United Confederate Veterans in 1890. In the years that followed, many more reunions took place there, and the cemetery became an important part of the Civil War commemoration and memorialization ceremonies.

The last burial at the Confederate Cemetery occurred in 2001, after a soldier's remains were found during an excavation project on Missionary Ridge. A memorial service took place on April 21, 2001 with full military honors. About 80 people took part in a service at Christ Church Episcopal on the night before the burial. About 250 more turned out for the reinterment ceremony, many wearing both Union blue and Confederate gray, and traveling as far away as Wisconsin, Ohio, and Indiana to take part in the service.

After decades of neglect, in 1995 the Chattanooga Confederate Cemetery was restored through the combined efforts of the City of Chattanooga and members of the Sons of the Confederate Veterans and the Military Order of the Stars and Bars, the latter two groups having raised funds for the restoration. Author photo.

I want to publicly thank Tennessee's State Historian, Dr. Carroll Van West, members of the Tennessee Civil War Sesquicentennial Commission, and the Chattanooga Convention and Visitors Bureau, all of whom helped make Traci's appearance at this Signature Event possible.

Traci Nichols-Belt is the author of Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War, published by The History Press. Traci holds a Master's degree in public history from Middle Tennessee State University and a Bachelor's degree in Political Science from Anderson University. Her principal research interest is the Civil War, with a particular focus on the impact of religion on the military. Traci has appeared on radio and television to speak about the role of religion in the Civil War, and she has had her writings published in the Tennessee Historical Quarterly and in The New York Times Civil War blog, Disunion.

Disunion...

Today, I'm very pleased to share this news... My wife, Traci, and I recently co-authored an article for The New York Times "Disunion" Civil War blog, and today that article was published online!

Our article focuses on two key figures mentioned in our book, Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War -- The Rev. R. F. Bunting, and Private E. H. Ross, both serving in the Eighth Texas Cavalry of the Army of Tennessee, C.S.A. Using their individual stories as a backdrop, we explore how faith influenced those who fought for the Army of Tennessee during the Civil War, and how religion helped forge a national identity for the Confederacy.

In the byline, the editors of "Disunion" also revealed some good news about my career that I plan to address in the coming days, but in the meantime I hope readers of The Posterity Project will take a moment and click on the link below to read our article. Thanks to The New York Times for allowing us to have the opportunity to share this story from Onward Southern Soldiers with a wider audience...

Read "Onward Southern Soldiers" on The New York Times "Disunion" Civil War blog.

 

Gordon Belt and Traci Nichols-Belt are a husband and wife team of authors and public historians. Together, they have collaborated on two books. Traci Nichols-Belt is the author of Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War. Her book explores the significant impact of religion on the Army of Tennessee, C.S.A., on every rank, from generals to chaplains to common soldiers. Gordon Belt is the author of John Sevier: Tennessee’s First Hero, which focuses on the life and legend of Tennessee’s first governor, John Sevier. Both books are published by The History Press, an award-winning publisher of local and regional history titles from coast to coast. Gordon and Traci’s writings focus specifically on stories from their home state of Tennessee.

Signed copies of Onward Southern Soldiers are now available!

Copies of Onward Southern Soldiers have arrived from our publisher, The History Press, and we're eager to sign them!

You can now order a signed copy of Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War directly from us through my blog, The Posterity Project. Simply go to our order page and select the PayPal option. Cover price is $19.99 plus shipping and handling costs.

I'd also like to let readers of The Posterity Project know that we are planning a few book signing events in the very near future, so be on the lookout for information about that and more on our Onward Southern Soldiers Facebook page.

Thanks to all who have expressed interest in this project. Traci and I genuinely appreciate your support!

Gordon Belt and Traci Nichols-Belt are a husband and wife team of authors and public historians. Together, they have collaborated on two books. Traci Nichols-Belt is the author of Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War. Her book explores the significant impact of religion on the Army of Tennessee, C.S.A., on every rank, from generals to chaplains to common soldiers. Gordon Belt is the author of John Sevier: Tennessee’s First Hero, which focuses on the life and legend of Tennessee’s first governor, John Sevier. Both books are published by The History Press, an award-winning publisher of local and regional history titles from coast to coast. Gordon and Traci’s writings focus specifically on stories from their home state of Tennessee.

A sneak peek at our book cover...

It's been a while since my last update on our book project, Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War. Traci and I have been busy reviewing our finals edits and a proof copy of our book, but now all of that has been completed and we're anxiously awaiting publication.

As you can imagine, we're both very excited to see this project enter its final stage. We're anticipating a late-summer release date. When we get an exact date of publication, I'll let everyone know through The Posterity Project.

In the meantime, I would like to share with you a proof copy of the cover of our book, featuring the artwork of renowned Civil War artist, Mort Künstler...

The History Press has done a great job of working with us throughout the publishing process. Traci and I are both very pleased with the results. I'm looking forward to sharing more news about Onward Southern Soldiers in the coming days.


Traci Nichols-Belt is the author of Onward Southern Soldiers: Religion and the Army of Tennessee in the Civil War, published by The History Press. Traci holds a Master's degree in public history from Middle Tennessee State University and a Bachelor's degree in Political Science from Anderson University. Her principal research interest is the Civil War, with a particular focus on the impact of religion on the military. Traci has appeared on radio and television to speak about the role of religion in the Civil War, and she has had her writings published in the Tennessee Historical Quarterly and in The New York Times Civil War blog, Disunion.